Solidarity and Anomie
Sociologists like Émile Durkheim have argued that social phenomena cannot merely be reduced to individual actions, as they are products of collective consciousnesses and institutions that exist independently of individuals.
A relevant concept in this context is emergence, which characterizes the formation or arising of new properties in a composite system that cannot be explained by the properties of the individual parts.
Thus, while methodological individualism views society as the sum of individuals, methodological holism sees society as more than just the sum of its parts.
Here, a ‘social fact’ (fait social), according to Durkheim, refers to ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist outside the individual but exert a coercive influence on them. Social facts are collective and structural, manifesting in societal norms, laws, institutions, and customs.
In a study context, social facts could include informal norms of behavior in educational settings, expectations of group work, or the unwritten rules that govern interactions between students and instructors. These norms can be so strong that one can “bump into them” — for example, if one goes against them, there is a risk of social sanctioning or exclusion.
Mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity are two concepts Durkheim uses to describe different types of social bonds in society. Mechanical solidarity is characteristic of traditional, simple societies where members share common values and norms and perform similar tasks. This form of solidarity arises through similarity and shared experiences.
In contrast, organic solidarity is typical of modern, complex societies, where individuals’ roles and tasks are specialized and different — the concept of functional differentiation explains the process of specialization of the parts or mechanisms of a given structure to perform different functions. Here, solidarity arises through mutual dependence, as individuals rely on each other’s different functions to maintain society as a whole.
Although modern societies are primarily characterized by organic solidarity, examples of mechanical solidarity can still be found, such as in small, close-knit subcultures or communities where shared identity and values dominate, like in certain religious groups or rural areas.
Further, Durkheim described anomie as a state of normlessness or moral confusion that occurs when a society’s norms and values are disintegrating or no longer clear. Anomie can lead to social disintegration and individual problems such as increased suicide rates.
Today, anomie can manifest in societies experiencing rapid social and economic changes, where traditional norms and values are undermined, and new norms have yet to establish themselves.
Examples of anomie can be found in societies with high unemployment, widespread economic insecurity, or where social media and globalization challenge established values, leading to a sense of alienation or meaninglessness.