The Forms of Capital by Pierre Bourdieu
As we delve into the exploration of class structures and ‘social energies’, we come across Pierre Bourdieu’s framework that revolves around the concept of capital, shedding light on the mechanisms of social reproduction and mobility. Bourdieu identifies various forms of capital that hold substantial sway in shaping social dynamics. These encompass economic capital, encompassing monetary wealth and valuable assets; cultural capital, which encompasses education, knowledge, and cultural competencies; and social capital, which finds its roots in social networks and familial ties. Additionally, we encounter symbolic capital, a form of capital that emerges and interweaves with the others, adding further layers to our understanding.
Economic capital is “immediately and directly convertible into money and may be institutionalised in the forms of property rights” (Bourdieu, 1986). Bourdieu sees economic capital as the financial and material assets which can be converted into money, or that which is already monetary. Economic capital is thus the financial and material resources available, including land ownership. Economic possessions increase the individual's capacity, mobility and power in society. Bourdieu takes a materialist interpretation of economic capital and regards it as paramount in identifying the social agent in a class hierarchy. Economic capital is unevenly distributed and characterised by the law of transmission, economic capital is the root of the other forms of capital, which can be understood as disguises of economic capital, here referring to cultural and social capital.
In regards to cultural capital, there are three subcategories: embodied cultural capital, objectified cultural capital and institutionalised cultural capital. Embodied cultural capital pertains to the knowledge and skills acquired from habitus, the social agent thereby embodies the cultural capital via his or her manners, etiquette, vocabulary and accents. Here, culture is one with the person, it resides on the body, and it is closely tied to the identity of the individual, the linguistic skill and accent indicate social background. Their proficiency in language can indicate social origins, aesthetic tastes may also be considered embodied cultural capital as preferences in sports or food can signify social standing. Whether attending an opera or a football game, what we desire is embedded within us. On the other hand, objectified cultural capital consists of physical cultural assets such as books, cars, jewellery, clothing, etc. The objectified cultural capital is tangible, the possessions make up this subcategory of cultural capital. However, owning valuable items by itself does not infer objectified cultural capital, the owner of the object must be aware of the item’s significance. A person can, in theory, inherit an expensive portrait, but know nothing about it, if it is merely a financial asset then we are concerned with economic capital. Lastly, there is institutionalised cultural capital, which is often enacted via educational degrees or diplomas, it is therefore seldom directly inherited, but the social background can determine access to institutionalised cultural capital. As an example, children do not inherit their parents’ university degrees, but due to the resources available, the child may have access to a university education, which frequently transmits into economic capital.
Social capital pertains to social and familial relationships, Bourdieu explains “social capital is the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalised relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition – or in other words, to membership in a group” (1986). Members of social groups are provided with a collectively-backed capital, a sort of ‘credential’ which verifies the person’s position. In some cases, the relations rely on symbiotic exchanges as a mutual form of recognition, but social capital can also be cultivated in an asymmetrical fashion, by which certain individuals are positioned above others. Social capital can further be instituted or guaranteed by family name, signifying belonging to a clan, class or tribe. The amount of social capital gives the social agent more mobility by mobilising a sizable network to serve personal interests. Access to corporate positions or political influence are all things that can be enabled by social capital, and consequently, it can be turned into economic capital. The reproduction of social capital is a continuous effort, often reliant on a series of social exchanges to affirm and reaffirm. The profitability of labour, in some cases, depends on maintaining social capital, because social capital expands the individual’s network, and thus also, possibilities. The inherited social capital can be signified by a surname, in such a situation, Bourdieu notes that “they are known to more people than they know, and their work of sociability, when it is exerted, is highly productive” (1986). There are also institutions which serve to legitimise social relations and exclude others, by creating occasions (parties, hunts, etc.), practices (ceremonies, traditions, etc.) or places (gated communities, private schools, etc.). The social class system enforces class structure under permissible functions of liberal society, bringing together homogeneous groups, who hold similar interests and status.
Lastly, there is symbolic capital, which has its roots in all aforementioned forms of capital, economic, cultural and social capital. Symbolic capital holds similarities to the notion of reputation, it describes how individuals position themselves through symbolic representations. “Symbolic capital, that is to say, capital – in whatever form – insofar as it is represented, i.e., apprehended symbolically, in a relationship of knowledge or, more precisely, of misrecognition and recognition, presupposes the intervention of the habitus, as a socially constituted cognitive capacity” (Bourdieu, 1986). Within different contexts, different realisations of capital are respected. In academia, one’s position in the hierarchy is closely tied to institutionalised cultural capital, e.g. one’s university degree, perhaps also, cultural objects, e.g. books owned, and embodied cultural capital, e.g. academic linguistic competence. Social capital can also influence one’s academic position, but in fields, like the movie industry, the aspiring movie actor’s social capital is perhaps of greater significance, rather than the university diploma. Since symbolic capital is a more versatile idea of reputation, there are many different contexts, and consequently, the social, cultural and economic symbols required to climb the social hierarchy differ as different settings call for different symbolic manifestations of capital.
As capital operates according to an unequal sharing process, sociological tensions may arise between those who either seek to acquire, conserve or convert their capital as all capital is directly or indirectly transmissible. Economic capital is immediately and directly convertible into monetary capital and is thereby the root of the other forms of capital, which can be understood as disguises of economic capital. Here, referring to cultural capital, which relates to cultural knowledge, assets and institutions, and social capital which relates to social and familial connections. Lastly, there is symbolic capital, which can be apprehended in whatever form, insofar as it is represented, symbolic capital can be understood as a more versatile idea of reputation, operating within many different contexts.
Bibliography
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The Forms of Capital. Marxists. Accessed on the 9th of July 2022: https://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/bourdieu-forms-capital.htm
Ihlen, Ø. (2018). Symbolic capital. ResearchGate. Accessed on the 9th of July 2022: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327879497_Symbolic_Capital
Pinxten, W & Lievens, J. (2014). The importance of economic, social and cultural capital in understanding health inequalities: using a Bourdieu-based approach in research on physical and mental health perceptions. In: Sociology of Health & Illness, 36 (7), p. 1095–1110. Accessed on the 9th of July 2022: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1467-9566.12154